University of Plymouth Study: Only 4% of Legislation Explicitly Mentions Satellites, Enforcement in Nearly 10,000 Global Marine Protected Areas Constrained by Regulatory Ambiguity

A new study published on November 12, 2026 shows that although satellite technology can detect fishing activity in marine protected areas, unclear regulations may prevent authorities from using this evidence to enforce restrictions. The study was led by researchers at the University of Plymouth and published in npj Ocean Sustainability.

The research team examined the regulations of nearly 10,000 marine protected areas across six continents, as well as about 120 pieces of national legislation, to assess whether existing legal frameworks support satellite-based enforcement. The study found that only 4% of the legislation examined explicitly mentions satellites or vessel tracking; 61% of marine protected area provisions contain discretionary wording such as "may" or "should," and about one-third lack clear prohibitions.

The study notes that advances in satellite monitoring have outpaced the legal rules needed to turn vessel detection into enforcement action. Fabio Favoretto, a lecturer at the University of Plymouth and first author of the study, said: "There are thousands of marine protected areas around the world intended to protect the ocean, but most protected area rules were written for an era of patrol boats and eyewitnesses. Today satellites have changed the way we observe the ocean, including revealing when, where and what vessels did inside protected areas. The monitoring technology is already in place; what is often missing is the regulation that allows authorities to act on it."

The study proposes several amendments that could strengthen satellite enforcement, including replacing vague wording with clear prohibitions, defining restrictions more precisely, and, where appropriate, requiring more advanced vessel tracking systems. The researchers also recommend clarifying whether electronic monitoring data can be used in enforcement proceedings and reviewing marine protected area regulations before investing in additional satellite monitoring systems. They estimate that implementing these and other changes could more than double countries' regulatory readiness for satellite-based enforcement.

Senior author Enric Sala, executive director of National Geographic's Pristine Seas program, said: "Satellites can now see illegal fishing inside marine protected areas, but most rules are not written in a way that satellites can prove. Rewriting these rules would more than double our ability to act on the behavior we detect."